Women in Managerial Positions in Europe: Focus On Germany**

Zusammenfassung

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Prejudices and stereotypical beliefs about the role of women in society often limit their chances of reaching top leadership positions. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the socio-economic structure and the gender pay gap in managerial positions in Germany building on a review from a cross-national perspective of women's progress to high-ranking positions and of initiatives to overcome the "glass ceiling". Suggestions are made for improving the situation of women in order to permit more balanced gender participation in the economy, while also promoting national competitiveness and higher levels of wellbeing for the society.

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Auszug

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Women in Managerial Positions in Europe: Focus On Germany**

1. Introduction - basic conditions

Women in higher-ranking positions' are role models for other women. They show what women can achieve and that it is possible for them to follow their chosen careers. This is an important point because most women in managerial positions are working in traditionally male spheres with male-oriented norms that define what constitutes "leadership qualities". Because they do not necessarily conform to this norm and may possess different leadership skills, women are often confronted with prejudices and are expected to conform to stereotypes. Such attitudes have the potential to seriously limit women's chances to lead. Positive role models, on the other hand, have the potential to change norms and to provide a wider range of leadership styles that benefit employers.

These psychological and cultural aspects are generally not dealt with in traditional labor economics. Neoclassical models explain occupational gender differences mainly by differing preferences for work hours and different occupational interest.2 The limits of this rational choice approach have frequently been discussed in the literature (Cook/Levi 1990). Many critiques have been directed at the "malestream" models (for example in Bergmann 1995, Humphries 1995, Nelson 1996), others emphasize the influence of the individual human actors and their beliefs (Ferber/Nelson 1993). Further, Michèle Pujol (1992, 1995) pointed out that the founding fathers of the neoclassical paradigm had strong patriarchal beliefs about women's and men's roles in society and their different abilities and were extremely concerned about the negative impact of women's employment on their household duties. Measures to increase the earning capacity of women and their opportunities in the labor market (for example by getting a better education) ...

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